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Sean Mackey is a professor of pain medicine at Stanford University and the director of the Stanford Systems Neuroscience and Pain Lab, where his research explores the neural mechanisms of pain and the development of novel treatments for chronic pain. In this episode, Sean joins Peter for a wide-ranging discussion on the multifaceted nature of pain—as both a sensory and emotional experience—and its evolutionary purpose as a critical survival mechanism. He dives into how pain is transmitted through the nervous system, the different types of pain, and why different individuals perceive pain so differently. Sean shares insights into pain management strategies ranging from medications like NSAIDs and opioids to neuromodulation techniques such as transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS). Additionally, this episode explores the interplay between sleep and chronic pain and the psychological and emotional dimensions of pain, and it includes a personal story from Peter about his own experience with pain and how Sean’s expertise helped him more than two decades ago.

We discuss:

• The definition of pain, and how our understanding of pain has evolved from a simplistic body-mind separation to a nuanced biopsychosocial model [2:30];
• The biological mechanisms behind how we perceive pain [9:30];
• The role of consciousness in the perception of pain, and how nociception functions during unconscious states [14:30];
• The four types of pain [22:00];
• Using fMRI to identify objective biomarkers of pain in the brain [31:30];
• The evolutionary role of pain in human behavior and survival [36:00];
• How the brain processes and modulates pain signals, Gate Control Theory, the variability in individuals’ pain perception, and effectiveness of neuromodulation techniques like TENS [41:00];
• The brain’s influence on pain: the role of emotion, beliefs, sleep, and individual differences in perception and tolerance [53:45];
• Peter’s personal journey with chronic back pain, and how the emotional consequences of pain can be more distressing than the pain itself [1:04:30];
• The pharmacology of common pain medications—NSAIDs, COX-2 inhibitors, and acetaminophen [1:09:30];
• Muscle relaxants: benefits, drawbacks, and personalized strategies [1:20:30];
• The definition of chronic pain [1:29:15];
• The role of antidepressants in pain management [1:30:15];
• Opioids: their controversial and nuanced role in pain management [1:33:45];
• Alternative therapies: acupuncture and cannabis [1:54:15];
• Fibromyalgia and chronic pain: clinical features, brain mechanisms, and emerging treatments like low-dose naltrexone [2:01:00];
• Possible brain benefits of low-dose naltrexone (LDN) for people with mild cognitive impairment [2:15:00];
• Peter’s recovery from severe chronic pain—how he went from immobility and high-dose opioids to full functionality [2:20:15];
• Breaking the pain cycle: how physical rehabilitation and psychological recovery work together in chronic pain treatment [2:30:45];
• Sean’s struggle with cluster headaches, and the value of knowledge, preparation, and empathy in both managing chronic pain and caring for patients [2:39:15]; and
• More.

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In this “Ask Me Anything” (AMA) episode, Peter dives deep into nicotine—a topic increasingly debated both scientifically and publicly. He clarifies the critical differences between nicotine and tobacco, highlighting why nicotine alone isn't primarily responsible for smoking's severe health consequences. Peter examines the specific risks associated with nicotine use, including addiction, sleep disruption, cardiovascular concerns, and effects on mood and anxiety. He evaluates various nicotine delivery methods, from traditional cigarettes to gums, pouches, and synthetic alternatives, ranking them according to their relative safety. Additionally, Peter explores nicotine's potential positive and negative impacts on physical performance, cognitive function, fertility, and its interactions with other stimulants like caffeine. Finally, he provides practical guidance for minimizing risks with nicotine use and offers thoughtful strategies for smoking cessation and effective nicotine replacement therapies.

If you’re not a subscriber and are listening on a podcast player, you’ll only be able to hear a preview of the AMA. If you’re a subscriber, you can now listen to this full episode on your private RSS feed or our website at the AMA #70 show notes page. If you are not a subscriber, you can learn more about the subscriber benefits here.

We discuss:

• Revisiting the previous AMA on microplastics: low-effort, high-impact changes to significantly reduce microplastic exposure [1:45];
• Overview of episode topics related to nicotine [3:30];
• The current landscape of nicotine research [4:45];
• Addressing the common misconception that nicotine itself is the primary cause of tobacco-related health risks [6:45];
• Peter’s Marlboro-branded apparel is a nostalgic tribute to the Formula One era and not a sign of support for smoking [10:00];
• The limitations of current research on the health risks of nicotine itself [12:15];
• The most common side effects of nicotine [18:15];
• The impact of nicotine on sleep [21:30];
• Nicotine and mood: how nicotine can have both anxiety-inducing and calming effects based on genetics and dosage [25:00];
• The addictive properties of nicotine: factors influencing addiction risk, and why certain people may struggle more than others [29:15];
• The various nicotine products and nicotine delivery methods available: effects, absorption rates, and potential risks [33:45];
• The relative risks of various nicotine products: how differences in nicotine concentration, absorption rates, and presence of contaminants impact their safety [37:00];
• Potential cognitive benefits of nicotine: short-term benefits and impact of chronic use [44:45];
• How nicotine exposure during adolescence can negatively impact brain development [47:45];
• Nicotine's potential to prevent or slow neurodegenerative diseases [50:45];
• Nicotine’s impact on memory, learning, and attention [52:45];
• The interaction between nicotine and other stimulants, particularly caffeine [55:15];
• Nicotine's potential impact on physical performance [57:15];
• The potential effects of nicotine on fertility, and the challenges of distinguishing the impact of nicotine itself from the effects of smoking [58:30];
• Considerations for people curious about using nicotine for its cognitive benefits [1:01:30];
• How to think about nicotine: weighing cognitive claims, addiction risks, and personal tolerance [1:03:15];
• The prevalence of smoking, the health risks it poses, and the substantial long-term benefits of quitting [1:05:45];
• Effective strategies for smoking cessation, including the use of nicotine replacement therapies [1:09:00];
• The reasons behind weight gain after quitting smoking, the role of nicotine in appetite suppression, and strategies to manage weight [1:15:30]; and
• More.

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Sanjay Mehta is a radiation oncologist with over 25 years of experience, and is currently the president of Century Cancer Centers in Houston, Texas (drsanjaymehta.com). In this episode, Sanjay explores the rapidly evolving field of radiation oncology, addressing common misconceptions about radiation exposure. He delves into radiation’s critical role in modern oncology, examining recent advancements that precisely target tumors while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissues and reducing side effects, with specific insights into breast, prostate, and brain cancers. Sanjay discusses fascinating international practices involving low-dose radiation therapy for inflammatory conditions such as arthritis, tendonitis, and sports injuries, highlighting its effectiveness and potential for wider adoption in the United States. Wrapping up on a lighter note, Peter and Sanjay discuss their mutual passion for cars and reveal how this shared interest first brought them together.

We discuss:

• How radiation oncology became a distinct, rapidly evolving medical specialty [2:45];
• Defining radiation, ionizing vs. non-ionizing, and common misconceptions about radiation exposure [5:30];
• How radiation doses are measured, real-world examples of radiation exposure, and safety practices [9:00];
• Radiation doses from common medical imaging tests, and why benefits of routine imaging outweigh risks [14:15];
• Therapeutic radiation oncology: the evolution of breast cancer treatment toward less invasive surgery combined with targeted radiation [23:30];
• Modern radiation oncology treatments for breast cancer—minimizing risks and maximizing patient comfort and outcomes [27:15];
• How advances in radiation dosing, technology, and treatment precision have significantly reduced side effects [39:45];
• How breast implants affect radiation treatment [44:45];
• Radiation therapy for prostate cancer: advancements in precision, effectiveness, and patient selection criteria [48:00];
• Radiation therapy options for inoperable prostate cancer or those seeking alternatives to surgery, and a remarkable patient case study [55:15];
• How patients can effectively evaluate and select a high-quality radiation oncologist [1:05:45];
• Radiation therapy for brain cancer: the shift toward precise, targeted techniques that minimize cognitive side effects, and remaining challenges [1:08:30];
• The origins of radiophobia and how it influenced perceptions of radiation use in medicine [1:18:00];
• Treating chronic inflammatory conditions such as tendinitis, arthritis, and more with very low-dose radiation [1:23:45];
• Using low-dose radiation to treat spine injuries, scar tissue, fibrosis, keloids, and more [1:30:00];
• The current barriers preventing widespread adoption of low-dose radiation therapy for inflammatory conditions [1:35:45];
• The durability and versatility of low-dose radiation therapy in treating chronic inflammatory and arthritic conditions [1:40:45];
• Sanjay’s talent as a drummer [1:44:45];
• Peter and Sanjay’s shared passion for cars and racing [1:47:15]; and
• More.

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In this special episode of The Drive, Peter joins a unique conversation inspired by his daughter’s volunteer experience at a senior care center, where she formed meaningful relationships with residents curious about healthspan, lifespan, and strategies for living well as they age. Peter engages directly with the residents, covering critical topics like the profound impact of exercise—particularly strength training— for maintaining mobility, preventing falls, and preserving independence later in life. He also discusses the importance of nutrition, emphasizing adequate protein intake, along with strategies for sleep optimization and preservation of brain health. Peter also underscores the importance of emotional wellness, purpose, and social connections in healthy aging, provides advice on staving off chronic disease, and much more.

We discuss:

• Peter’s definition of longevity [2:30];
• Why it’s never too late to invest in your longevity [5:30];
• The importance of adding “life to years” rather than just “years to life” [7:45];
• The "four horsemen"—heart disease, cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and metabolic conditions [9:15];
• Advice for those managing chronic diseases later in life [11:30];
• Why balance declines and falls become increasingly common with age, and how to prevent them [13:30];
• Why strength training is essential (and effective) for older adults [18:30];
• The five tools in Peter’s longevity toolkit [21:00];
• Practical ways older adults can safely begin exercising despite physical limitations or health issues [23:00];
• Principles of good nutrition, and the importance of adequate protein intake [24:00];
• The importance of sleep for cognitive health, and effective sleep-improvement strategies for seniors [27:30];
• How emotional health, social connections, and a sense of purpose significantly impact quality of life and longevity [32:00];
• Why Peter decided to focus his work on longevity [33:45];
• Protein intake recommendations should be based on ideal body weight (not current weight) [34:45];
• The potential of klotho as a therapy for improving cognitive function and combating aging-related cognitive decline [35:30];
• The best types of protein supplements to consider [36:45];
• The APOE gene's influence on Alzheimer's disease risk, and why everyone should proactively address brain health, regardless of genetics [38:15];
• How falls can accelerate cognitive decline, and the importance of staying physically and mentally active [40:45]; and More.

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Ashley Mason is a clinical psychologist and an associate professor at UCSF, where she leads the Sleep, Eating, and Affect (SEA) Laboratory. In this episode, Ashley provides a masterclass on cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I), detailing techniques like time in bed restriction, stimulus control, and cognitive restructuring to improve sleep. She explains how to manage racing thoughts and anxiety, optimize sleep environments, and use practical tools like sleep diaries to track progress. She also offers detailed guidance on sleep hygiene; explores the impact of temperature regulation, blue light exposure, and bedtime routines; and offers guidance on finding a CBT-I therapist, along with sharing practical steps you can take on your own before seeking professional help.

We discuss:

• Defining insomnia: diagnosis, prevalence, and misconceptions [3:00];
• How insomnia develops, and breaking the cycle with cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) [7:45];
• The different types of insomnia, and the impact of anxiety, hydration, temperature, and more on sleep [11:45];
• The core principles of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and how CBT-I is used to treat insomnia [20:00];
• Implementing CBT-I: time in bed restriction, sleep scheduling, and the effect of napping [29:45];
• Navigating family and partner sleep schedules, falling asleep on the couch, sleep chronotypes, and more [39:45];
• Key aspects of sleep hygiene: temperature, light exposure, and circadian rhythm disruptions [44:45];
• Blue light and mental stimulation before bed, and the utility of A-B testing sleep habits [52:45];
• Other simple interventions that may improve sleep [57:30];
• Ashley’s view on relaxation techniques and mindfulness-based practices [1:02:30];
• The effectiveness of CBT-I, the role of sleep trackers, and best practices for managing nighttime awakenings [1:04:15];
• Guidance on intake of food and alcohol for good sleep [1:16:30];
• Reframing thoughts and nighttime anxiety to reduce sleep disruptions [1:18:45];
• Ashley’s take on sleep supplements like melatonin [1:21:45];
• How to safely taper off sleep medications like benzos and Ambien [1:26:00];
• Sleep problems that need to be addressed before CBT-I can be implemented [1:38:30];
• The importance of prioritizing a consistent wake-up time over a fixed bedtime for better sleep regulation [1:40:15];
• Process S and Process C: the science of sleep pressure and circadian rhythms [1:45:15];
• How exercise too close to bedtime may impact sleep [1:47:45];
• The structure and variability of CBT-I, Ashley’s approach, and tips for finding a therapist [1:50:30];
• The effect of sauna and cold plunge before bed on sleep quality [1:56:00];
• Key takeaways on CBT-I, and why no one should have to suffer from insomnia [1:58:15]; and
• More.

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In this "Ask Me Anything" (AMA) episode, Peter explores the complex world of supplements by introducing a practical framework for evaluating their effectiveness and relevance to individual health needs. Rather than providing a simple list of recommendations, Peter aims to equip listeners with the tools to critically assess supplements on their own. He then applies this framework to discuss research on several popular supplements, including creatine, fish oil, vitamin D, B vitamins, and ashwagandha. Additionally, he covers key factors in assessing supplement quality, helping listeners develop a deeper understanding of how to make informed decisions based on their personal health goals.

If you’re not a subscriber and are listening on a podcast player, you’ll only be able to hear a preview of the AMA. If you’re a subscriber, you can now listen to this full episode on your private RSS feed or our website at the AMA #69 show notes page. If you are not a subscriber, you can learn more about the subscriber benefits here.

We discuss:

• Overview of episode topics [1:45];
• How Peter evaluates patients’ supplement regimens, and common misconceptions about supplements vs. pharmaceuticals [3:00];
• A framework for evaluating supplements [6:15];
• Evaluating creatine: purpose of supplementation, dosing, and mechanism of action [10:00];
• Creatine: proven benefits for muscle performance, potential cognitive benefits, and why women may benefit more [15:15];
• Creatine: risk vs. reward, kidney concerns, and choosing the right supplement [18:45];
• Evaluating fish oil: its primary purpose as a supplement and how to track levels [20:45];
• Fish oil: how omega-3s impact inflammation, heart health, and brain function, and the strengths and limitations of current research [26:30];
• Fish oil: the risks of supplementation, guidance on selecting high-quality products, and how to determine whether supplementation is appropriate [37:30];
• Evaluating vitamin D: understanding deficiency and optimal levels [45:15];
• Vitamin D: role in bone health, immune function, potential longevity impact, and biomarker limitations [51:15];
• Vitamin D: efficacy, safety, and balancing risk vs. reward [58:15];
• Evaluating B vitamins: function, consequences of deficiency, and key biomarkers to assess whether supplementation is necessary [1:02:15];
• B vitamins: risks for CVD and dementia associated with deficiency, and limited evidence for general population supplementation [1:07:15];
• Evaluating ashwagandha: background, uses, and mechanism of action [1:15:30];
• Ashwagandha: current evidence for its effects on sleep, stress, and anxiety [1:19:15];
• Ashwagandha: evaluating supplement quality, safety profile, and the risk-reward balance [1:22:15];
• The importance of using a structured evaluation framework to assess any supplement [1:26:30]; and
• More.

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Jeff English is a trauma-focused clinical counselor with extensive experience working with adults, teens, families, and groups across various settings, including career counseling, life coaching, addiction recovery, professional workshops, and private practice. In this episode, Jeff shares insights from his work as a trauma therapist, exploring how moments of perceived helplessness shape behaviors and how adaptive strategies can become maladaptive over time. He discusses the concept of the “trauma tree,” examining its roots (causes) and branches (consequences), and highlights a powerful framework used at the Bridge to Recovery, a residential workshop where Jeff serves as an outreach specialist. Jeff reflects on the transformative power of group therapy, the role of vulnerability in fostering connection, and the challenges of letting go of control. He also offers practical advice on finding a great trauma therapist, balancing personal growth within relationships, and recognizing when it’s time to seek help.

We discuss:

• Defining trauma—a loaded word [3:00];
• The therapeutic process at The Bridge to Recovery: confronting discomfort, embracing vulnerability, and reframing one’s story [5:45];
• The roots of the trauma tree: the foundational wounding experiences that shape adaptive survival behaviors [11:30];
• The branches of the trauma tree: how trauma manifests through co-dependency, addictive patterns, insecure attachments, and more [17:30];
• The connection between trauma manifestations and underlying wounding experiences, trauma triggers, and the importance of surrender in the healing process [24:00];
• How surrendering control, eliminating distractions, and practicing vulnerability are essential components of the healing process [32:45];
• How adaptive behaviors developed during childhood in response to trauma can become maladaptive in adulthood [43:30];
• The difference between shame and guilt, and recognizing and addressing toxic shame and shame-driven behaviors [49:15];
• The unique rules at The Bridge to Recovery that support the healing process [53:15];
• Internal resistance to healing due to the fear of losing positive traits associated with trauma [58:15];
• The structured storytelling process at The Bridge, and the role of peer feedback in healing [1:05:00];
• The differences between immersive residential therapy and individual therapy, and how to determine the right approach for different individuals [1:09:30];
• Jeff’s personal journey as a client and therapist at The Bridge [1:22:00];
• The generational transmission of trauma, and breaking the cycle [1:25:45];
• The challenge of addressing socially acceptable maladaptive behaviors like workaholism, perfectionism, and overachievement [1:28:45];
• How to determine whether struggles stem from deep-seated trauma or just bad habits, and how rewiring maladaptive behaviors requires addressing the underlying emotional wounds [1:32:30];
• Breakthroughs that shatter beliefs and allows change to occur, and the process that creates this opportunity [1:39:15];
• Jeff’s advice on finding a therapist for trauma work [1:46:45];
• The importance of connection and vulnerability [1:52:45];
• How to encourage a resistant partner to seek healing [1:57:30];
• Jeff’s advice for those facing emotional struggles [1:59:15]; and
• More.

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In this quarterly podcast summary (QPS) episode, Peter summarizes his biggest takeaways from the last three months of guest interviews on the podcast. Peter shares key insights from his discussions on diverse topics such as aerobic efficiency and VO2 max with Olav Aleksander Bu; insulin resistance with Ralph DeFronzo; economics of the US healthcare system and cost-saving strategies with Saum Sutaria; diagnosis and treatment of autism, ADHD, and anxiety in children with Trenna Sutcliffe; and strength training with Mike Israetel. Additionally, Peter shares any personal behavioral adjustments or modifications to his patient care practices that have arisen from these fascinating discussions.

If you’re not a subscriber and are listening on a podcast player, you’ll only be able to hear a preview of the AMA. If you’re a subscriber, you can now listen to this full episode on your private RSS feed or our website at the episode #338 show notes page. If you are not a subscriber, you can learn more about the subscriber benefits here.

We discuss:

• Overview of topics to be discussed [2:00];
• Olav Aleksander Bu Pt.2 episode: metrics to track aerobic efficiency and insights about VO2 max, and the ability of increased carbohydrate consumption to boost performance [4:30];
• The best practices for performing a VO2 max test, the differences between VO2 max training and all-out efforts, and the role of energy intake in endurance performance [14:45];
• Ralph DeFronzo episode: the pathophysiology of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes—how they impact different organs, flaws in conventional diabetes treatment, and more [24:30];
• Understanding type 2 diabetes beyond the traditional triumvirate of features: the “ominous octet” describes changes in other organs [31:45];
• Pharmacological treatments for insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes [41:30];
• The importance of early detection and intervention in insulin resistance [50:30];
• Saum Sutaria episode: the economic and systemic drivers of high healthcare costs in the U.S. [54:00];
• Reducing health care costs: redefining health insurance, lowering drug prices while maintaining innovation, leveraging AI for efficiency, and more [1:07:15];
• Trenna Sutcliffe episode: insights on autism, ADHD, and anxiety in children—definitions and diagnosis [1:11:45];
• Exploring the rising prevalence of autism spectrum disorder [1:17:15];
• Trenna’s views on caring for children with autism [1:21:15];
• Misconceptions around vaccines and autism [1:26:00];
• Mike Israetel episode: insights about strength training, minimum effective dose, troubleshooting plateaus, tips for beginners, and more [1:28:15];
• Topics Peter is interested in exploring in future podcasts [1:40:15]; and
• More.

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Ralph DeFronzo is a distinguished diabetes researcher and clinician whose groundbreaking work on insulin resistance has reshaped the understanding and treatment of type 2 diabetes. In this episode, Ralph shares insights from his five decades of research, including his pivotal role in bringing metformin to the U.S. and developing SGLT2 inhibitors. Ralph explores the impacts of insulin resistance on specific organs, the pharmacologic interventions available, and the gold-standard euglycemic clamp method for measuring insulin resistance. This episode is a masterclass in the pathophysiology and treatment of type 2 diabetes, featuring an in-depth discussion of GLP-1 receptor agonists, metformin, and a lesser-known class of drugs that opened Peter’s eyes to new possibilities in diabetes care.

We discuss:

• Metabolic disease as a foundational driver of chronic illness [4:00];
• Defining insulin resistance: effects on glucose, fat, and protein metabolism, and how it varies between healthy, obese, and diabetic individuals [8:15];
• The historical significance of the development of the euglycemic clamp technique for measuring insulin resistance [11:45];
• How insulin affects different tissues: liver, muscle, and fat cells [15:00];
• The different ways insulin resistance manifests in various tissues: Alzheimer’s disease, cardiovascular disease, and more [25:00];
• The dangers of hyperinsulinemia, and the importance of keeping insulin levels within a physiological range [29:00];
• The challenges of identifying the genetic basis of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes [37:00];
• The “ominous octet”—a more comprehensive model of type 2 diabetes than the traditional triumvirate [45:45];
• The kidneys’ unexpected role in worsening diabetes, and how SGLT2 inhibitors were developed to treat diabetes [55:45];
• How insulin resistance in the brain and neurocircuitry dysfunction contribute to overeating and metabolic disease [1:04:15];
• Lipotoxicity: how overeating fuels insulin resistance and mitochondrial dysfunction [1:07:30];
• Pioglitazone: an underappreciated and misunderstood treatment for insulin resistance [1:10:15];
• Metformin: debunking the misconception that it is an insulin sensitizer and explaining its true mechanism of action [1:19:15];
• Treating diabetes with triple therapy vs. the ADA approach: a better path for diabetes management [1:24:00];
• GLP-1 agonists, the Qatar study, and rethinking diabetes treatment [1:31:30];
• Using a hyperglycemic clamp to look for genes that cause diabetes [1:45:15];
• The superiority of measuring C-peptide instead of insulin to assess beta-cell function [1:46:45];
• How GLP-1-induced weight loss affects muscle mass, the benefits and risks of myostatin inhibitors, and the need for better methods of evaluating functional outcomes of increased muscle mass [1:51:30];
• The growing crisis of childhood obesity and challenges in treating it [2:02:15];
• The environmental and neurological factors driving the obesity epidemic [2:07:30];
• The role of genetics, insulin signaling defects, and lipotoxicity in insulin resistance and diabetes treatment challenges [2:11:00];
• The oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT): detecting early insulin resistance and beta cell dysfunction [2:18:30]; and
• More.

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In this “Ask Me Anything” (AMA) episode, Peter tackles a diverse set of listener-submitted questions, covering a wide range of health and performance topics. He dives into assessing cardiovascular health, discussing key biomarkers and risk factors, and breaks down various fasting approaches, including time-restricted eating and prolonged fasting. The conversation also explores the impact of alcohol on health and disease risk, fundamental principles of nutrition, and optimal protein intake. Additionally, he examines the pros and cons of ketogenic and low-carb diets, strategies for building effective exercise routines, and the role of wearables in tracking health metrics. The episode concludes with insights on emotional health, making this a well-rounded discussion packed with practical takeaways for anyone looking to optimize their well-being.

If you’re not a subscriber and are listening on a podcast player, you’ll only be able to hear a preview of the AMA. If you’re a subscriber, you can now listen to this full episode on your private RSS feed or our website at the AMA #68 show notes page. If you are not a subscriber, you can learn more about the subscriber benefits here.

We discuss:

• Episode format: overview of common health topics based on listener questions [1:30];
• How to accurately assess your cardiovascular health [3:00];
• The impact of fasting, time-restricted eating, and dietary restriction on metabolic health [9:00];
• Alcohol: health risks of consumption, limitations of research, and how to weigh the risks against social and personal enjoyment [13:45];
• Principles of a well-balanced diet: macronutrients, micronutrients, protein, energy balance, and more [23:45];
• The benefits and drawbacks of ketogenic diets: impact on satiety, metabolic health, athletic performance, lipid levels, and more [29:15];
• Protein: best sources for muscle growth, total intake, PDCAAS scoring system, and getting adequate amounts on plant-based diets [36:15];
• Creating an effective fitness routine that fits into a busy schedule [41:45];
• The role of rest and recovery in a workout routine [46:00];
• How to track fitness progress beyond just weight on a scale [48:30];
• The best low-impact exercises for individuals with joint issues [52:00];
• Wearables: insight vs. compliance, and how to use them effectively [54:45];
• How to evaluate the risks and benefits of medical interventions: procedural risks, complication rates, and asking informed questions [59:00];
• Sleep: impact on metabolic and cognitive health, and tips for improving sleep quality [1:03:45];
• How to identify and address emotional health challenges [1:08:30]; and
• More.

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Mike Israetel is a sports physiologist, competitive bodybuilder, and co-founder of Renaissance Periodization, where he coaches athletes and professionals in diet and weight training. In this episode, Mike shares his journey from powerlifting to academia, breaking down the core principles of resistance training, including exercise selection, volume, intensity, and frequency. He debunks common misconceptions about strength training, explains how to structure an effective program for beginners and advanced lifters, and provides candid insights into his experience with anabolic steroids, discussing their effects on muscle growth, performance, and health risks. This conversation offers a deep dive into the science of building muscle, the realities of bodybuilding at the highest levels, and explores the potential of AI-driven breakthroughs to advance human performance and longevity.

We discuss:

• Mike’s academic journey, and early experiences in powerlifting, personal training, and sports physiology [3:30];
• Mike’s transition from powerlifting to bodybuilding, and his scientific and artistic approach to sculpting muscle and optimizing aesthetics [9:15];
• The value of strength training, time efficiency, and how it differs from endurance training [14:45];
• Neurological fatigue in strength training: balancing recovery and pushing the limits [26:15];
• The relationship between training intensity and volume, why muscle growth is not linear, and how different approaches affect results [35:00];
• Sustainable and effective approaches to maximizing muscle growth: training close to failure while minimizing fatigue [40:00];
• An efficient and effective resistance training program for beginners with limited time [49:00];
• Advice for finding a good trainer [1:06:30];
• Troubleshooting training plateaus: optimizing exercise selection, intensity, and recovery for muscle growth [1:13:30];
• The impact of genetics, age, and lifestyle on muscle growth [1:27:45];
• The importance of nutrition, protein intake, and consistency in both training and diet for muscle growth [1:31:00];
• The use of anabolic steroids to boost muscle growth: doses, drug combinations, and side effects [1:35:45];
• Long-term impact of steroid use: muscle retention, genetics and individual variability, and impact after discontinuation [1:52:15];
• Trade-offs of long-term usage of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone: health, performance, and Mike’s future plans [2:00:45];
• The potential for AI-driven medical breakthroughs to reverse aging and disease [2:07:30];
• The role of AI in accelerating drug development, advancing human longevity, and overcoming biological limitations [2:19:45];
• The philosophical implications of simulated reality, the impact of robotics on human labor and economics, and the challenge of predicting the future [2:25:15];
• Would having kids change Mike’s philosophy around anabolic steroid use? [2:32:15];
• The role of GLP-1 agonists in bodybuilding and general weight management, and the moral and philosophical debates surrounding their use [2:35:45]; and
• More.

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