Many plants need pollen from another plant of the same species in order to reproduce, but they don’t have legs so they can’t simply walk around looking for a mate.

As a result, many of them rely on animals to transfer pollen from one plant to another. They’ve developed a hugely diverse range of techniques to attract them, including their appearance, taste and smell. CrowdScience listener Alice in the UK wants to know how they have evolved to do this.

To try and answer the question, presenter Anand Jagatia goes trekking up a mountain in the Philippines, battling mud and leeches in the hunt for an incredibly rare flower. Rafflesia has evolved to look and smell like rotting meat in order to attract flies, so it’s the perfect example of a plant that goes to fascinating extremes to make sure it gets pollinated.

It only blooms for a few days each year, so to find it Anand is going to need the help of scientists at the University of the Philippines Los Baños and Lewis Barrett, Senior Botanical Propagator at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden and Arboretum.

Anand also visits the University of the Philippines Laguna Quezon Land Grant, a huge site containing more than 5,500 hectares of protected forest land. Professor Pastor Malabrigo Jr shows him a fig tree that has a fascinatingly gruesome relationship with its pollinator wasps.

So how did these amazingly diverse plants end up needing insect pollinators in the first place? Dr Kyra Krakos is a professor of biology at Maryville University and a research associate at the Missouri Botanical Garden in the United States. She explains to Anand that plants are surprisingly sexy – but how did they end up needing insects to survive?

Back in the Philippines, Anand’s guides have never actually seen the Rafflesia flower themselves, despite many attempts. So could this be the time they finally get lucky?

Presenter: Anand Jagatia

Producer: Dan Welsh

Editor: Ben Motley

With special thanks to Dr Chris Thorogood, Associate Professor of Biology at the University of Oxford and founder of the Community for the Conservation & Research of Rafflesia

(photo: Edited high angle view of Rafflesia on green gradient - Stock photo- Credit: Mohamed Tazi Cherti / 500px via Getty Images)

“What separates humans from animals, is an interest in the past”. That’s a 900-year-old quote from a textbook that Nigerian listener Taiwo came across, and he wrote to CrowdScience to ask if modern science would agree.

Most of us spend time thinking about the past, whether it is nostalgia for a bygone age or just wondering where we put the house keys yesterday. But is that just a human activity or do other animals also ruminate on their history and use it to make decisions? Taiwo wants to know if there is any evidence to show that animals have an interest in the past and if it matters to them.

Presenter Caroline Steel has a history of answering questions like this, so she sets out to find an answer. She meets researchers who have found evidence that animals not only remember past events, but use their memory for planning.

She talks to neuroscientist Dr Freyja Olafsdottir and discovers that some animals, including rats and mice, have the same brain structure for memory as humans.

She meets baby magpies in Professor Nicola Clayton’s laboratory in the UK and finds out about some of the very smart tactics jays use to hide their food from rivals, evidence that they’re using their memory to protect their interests.

She talks to psychologist Dr Gema Martin-Ordas whose research has shown that chimpanzees not only remember past events, but use what they’ve learnt in the future.

And she tests the memory of her own cat Oli, wondering if his ability to remember dinner time suggests that he is interested in the past too.

Ultimately it comes down to questions of consciousness, so as Caroline grapples with the idea that we can’t even be certain that other humans are genuinely conscious, what hope do we have of finding an answer for Taiwo?

Presenter: Caroline Steel

Producer: Jo Glanville

Editor: Ben Motley

(Photo: Cute clever cat with glasses reading a book. The cat lies on a stack of old books on a blue background. Credit:vvvita/Getty Images)

CrowdScience listener Rachel uses Bluetooth headphones on her cycle to work, seamlessly playing music from her phone without using wires. But how does this technology send information through the air?

To find out, Rachel and presenter Caroline Steel travel to Cambridge in the UK to meet telecommunications expert William Webb. He explains what Bluetooth signals actually are – and demonstrates why their properties are linked to the invention of leaky microwave ovens.

Caroline speaks to Jaap Haartsen, the inventor of Bluetooth, who reveals the hidden meaning of its logo, and what the name has to do with an ancient Viking king.

And she learns how a new flavour of “low energy” Bluetooth is having an unexpected application: helping ecologists like Damien Farine understand animal behaviour. Which leads her to an old tobacco barn in Switzerland, to meet researcher Bettina Almasi and her team – along with some very cute baby barn owls.

Presenter: Caroline Steel

Producer: Anand Jagatia

Editors: Ben Motley & Ilan Goodman

(Photo:Composite photo collage of hands hold phone device internet antenna connection technology bluetooth - stock photo- Credit: Deagreez via Getty Images)

CrowdScience listener Haruka has been making origami cranes out of paper since she was a child. Creating one out of a cloth napkin, however, was a next-level challenge. It gave her a new appreciation of paper’s excellent foldability, and made her wonder: what is it about paper’s structure that means it remembers its creases? We set out to unfold her question as we peer into paper’s secrets. First stop: Frogmore, the world’s first mechanised paper mill. Here, Dr Steven Mann is on hand to explain the papermaking process, the chemistry of paper, and why that makes for a foldable sheet.

Host Caroline Steel tries to make a paper crane, assisted by both listener Haruka and origami teacher Toshiko Kurata, who also introduces us to an array of paper types. Each type folds differently, and, with the help of a trusty microscope, Professor Bill Sampson from the University of Manchester reveals why.

Finally, we see just how complex paper folding can get, meeting Professor Tomohiro Tachi from the University of Tokyo, and his invention, The Origamizer. Presenter: Caroline Steel

Producer: Cathy Edwards

Editor: Ben Motley

(Photo: Toshiko Kurata and Caroline Steel with origami creations - Credit:BBC)

CrowdScience listener George is showing Alex Lathbridge around a small, dark, and extremely hot shed, just outside the city of Accra in Ghana. Inside are row after row of shelves, stacked high with bulging grow-bags. And out of some of them, gorgeous cascades of oyster mushrooms are bursting into bloom.

We’re on George’s mushroom farm, and he’s noticed something interesting. Even though the conditions in his grow-shed are tightly controlled – they have exactly the same food, water, and light as each other – nevertheless, they respond differently. Some are more vigorous than others, some bloom quicker, others last longer, and some are more tolerant when the conditions change. And this got George wondering. Could ‘brainless’ lifeforms like mushrooms, and plants, have different ‘personalities’? Do they experience the world differently, and live their lives differently from each other? Alex Lathbridge is on the case.

He visits the PGRRI, the Plant Genetic Resources Research Centre, for a quick lesson on genetic variation in the plant world. Plants are all different at the genetic level, and it’s those differences which can result in a tastier fruit, or a hardier crop. But would we call traits like these personality?

In the Minimal Intelligence Lab in the University of Murcia in Spain, Paco Calvo thinks that we absolutely should. He studies plant intelligence, and points Alex to a whole host of examples of plants being smart in ways which might surprise you. Each one is an individual, and if we can only slow down enough to appreciate them properly, we’d be able to understand them better too.

Back in Ghana, Alex meets plant physiologist Dr Acheampong Atta-Boateng, in the beautiful grounds of Aburi Botanical Gardens, to meet some of these plants for himself. And he discovers that there’s a whole world of smart, resilient, and resourceful little organisms in the plant world, full of personality, if you know where to look. Who needs a brain!?

Presenter: Alex Lathbridge

Producer: Emily Knight

Editor: Ben Motley

(Photo: Drawing of a face and smiling eyes on a sunflower flower - stock photo- Credit: Jose A. Bernat Bacete via Getty Images)

Why is there such a variety of tongues in the animal kingdom? CrowdScience listener Dale has observed that his dog’s tongue is different from his and so is his cat’s.  He’d like to know the reason.

Caroline Steel visits London Zoo in the UK to find out more about the different types of tongues - from giraffes and birds to lizards.

She talks to evolutionary biologist Kurt Schwenk, who explains that the development of tongues made it possible for animals to make the leap from the sea to life on land. Fish could rely on water to help them swallow food, but air and gravity required a whole different mechanism for having dinner.

But why is there such a variety of tongues between species - from the forked tongue of a snake to the rough tongue of a cat? And does it all come down to our diets?

Researcher Callum Ross reveals how he’s pioneered a new technique for investigating how animals use their tongues when they eat and drink, and why tongues are so important for swallowing.

Presenter: Caroline Steel

Producer: Jo Glanville

Editor: Ben Motley

(Photo: Giraffe licking its lips - stock photo - Credit: laurenepbath via Getty Images)

CrowdScience listener Daniel in Accra, Ghana is an introvert. Or at least, he thinks he is. And he’s worried that his preference for quiet spaces and lower social interaction might be holding him back in life. But what is introversion really? How do introverts and extroverts see the world differently? And is it better to be one or the other?

Presenter Alex Lathbridge spends his working days talking to interesting people like Daniel. He loves meeting people, and talking to them too, yet he also thinks that deep down, he might be an introvert. To understand how and why people come to be introverted or extraverted, and what’s happening in the brain, he pays a visit to neuroscientist Dr Thomas Tagoe from the University of Ghana Medical school, for a peek inside the mind. Turns out, introverts aren’t shy, and definitely aren’t anti-social either, despite what people might assume. The difference is more about how we process stimulation, and at what point we find it all a bit too much to process. Although sometimes it might feel like the world is built for the extraverts out there, Thomas offers some reassurance. There are huge benefits to being introverted too, and there’s room in the world for all the different personality types to thrive.

But how about in the workplace? Daniel is worried that his introversion could be holding him back at work. He feels like being good at your job is not always enough – you need to be able to network, charm people, and “work the room” if you want to succeed. So, Alex heads for the Methodist University of Ghana to meet Professor William Baah-Boateng, who has studied the effect of all the different personality types on their performance in the workplace. Is there a place for the introverts of this work to make their mark?

Presenter: Alex Lathbridge

Producer: Emily Knight

Editor: Ben Motley 

(Photo:A view of a woman's eye looking through a hole in some colorful paper-Stock Photo - Credit:PeopleImages via Getty Images)

Why do we feel itchy? So many listeners have emailed in with questions about itchiness, and presenter Anand Jagatia on the case.

We explore why we itch, the different types of itch, the different causes, and why scratching can help with the itchy sensation. 

Anand puts your questions to an expert panel: Dr Sonja Ständer, professor of Dermatology and Neurodermatology at the University of Münster and and Gil Yosipovitch, Professor of Dermatology at the Miller School of Medicine at University of Miami. 

Also joining them from the University of Hull in the UK is Dr Henning Holle who studies the psychology of itch. He’s got an itchy game for Anand, Sonja and Gil to play in the studio, but is it really as simple as he’s letting on?

Presenter: Anand Jagatia 

Producer: Tom Bonnett 

Editor: Ben Motley 

(Photo: Young women have skin problems, irritation on her skin, skin infection itching red rash, arm scratching with hands, isolated over yellow background - stock photo - Credit: Arnav Pratap Singh via Getty Images)

As our oceans warm due to climate change, sea levels are rising. It ought to be straightforward – as water gets warmer, it increases in volume.

All the world’s oceans are connected, so how come sea levels are rising at different rates around the world, and even falling in some places? CrowdScience listener Alison in Australia wants to know the science behind the mystery.

 Presenter Anand Jagatia travels to the Philippines to investigate. The country is being particularly affected by the issue, with its more than 7,500 islands experiencing sea level rises that are double the global average.

On Palawan Island, in the east of the country, he speaks to people whose homes and livelihoods are being put at risk by rising waters.

He also visits the Philippine Coast Guard in Manila and speaks to Commander James Barandino, from their Marine Environmental Protection division, to hear how their work is being affected by sea level rises and the flooding it causes.

Dr Charina Lyn Repollo from the University of the Philippines Marine Science Institute shows Anand how they monitor sea levels at dozens of locations. Their data shows huge variations in sea level across the country. How can that be the case?

Anand also speaks to Jonathan Bamber, Professor of Earth Observation and Glaciology at the University of Bristol in the UK, to unpick the science behind how sea levels can rise at different rates in different places.

And how do we protect people from rising waters? Dr Rodel Diaz Lasco from the Oscar M. Lopez Center for Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Management in Manila, explains how global collaboration might hold the key.

Presenter: Anand Jagatia

Producer: Dan Welsh

Editor: Ben Motley

(Photo: Globe floating on water - stock photo- Credit: Jan Hakan Dahlstrom via Getty Images)

CrowdScience listener Jeroen finds it hard to remember people's faces - and he wants to know why. He wonders if it's to do with getting older and if there’s any way of improving.

Presenter Caroline Steel has the same problem and is keen to find an answer too.

She meets Professor Zaira Cattaneo, a neuroscientist based in Italy who researches face perception. Zaira has discovered which parts of the brain are engaged in facial recognition. She explains how we recognise faces and why ageing could be a factor in Jeroen’s difficulty.

Caroline travels to Bournemouth in the UK to meet researcher Professor Sarah Bate, who assesses Caroline's ability to recognise faces and explains the causes of face blindness.

And she compares notes with fellow CrowdScience presenter Marnie Chesterton, who also has difficulty remembering faces. Around two per cent of the population have the condition. Could there be a reason why more than a third of CrowdScience presenters experience face blindness?

If you’ve got a science question you’d like us to answer, email [email protected].

Presenter Caroline Steel

Producer Jo Glanville

Editor Ben Motley

(Photo:Packaging cardboard on the head with different emotions - stock photo Credit: Flying broccoli via Getty Images)

CrowdScience listeners Dougie and Molly have been wondering what happens to animals when they die, and whether there are animals that hold rituals to mark the passing of one of their kin.

Presenter Caroline Steel is on the case, trying to work out what happens to the bodies of animals when they die. Dougie and Molly say they rarely see animal carcasses where they live - so where do they all go?

Dr Sarah Perkins of Cardiff University in the UK runs a research project called Roadlab, which logs how quickly the bodies of animals killed by traffic disappear, and she thinks she might have a clue. Caroline joins her on a hunt through the undergrowth for animals, and answers.

And when animals lose a member of their flock, herd or school, do they indulge in rituals that look anything like a funeral? Caroline meets Dr Kaeli Swift, an ecologist at the University of Washington in the US, who has some surprising evidence from her research into bereaved crows.

Meanhile, in Botswana, Mathale ‘Metal’ Mosheti is a safari guide in Chobe National Park. The African Savannah Elephants there demonstrate some remarkable behaviour when another elephant dies. But do animals really grieve for their loved ones? Dr Barbara J. King, Emerita Professor of Anthropology at William & Mary University in the US, has some ideas. But is it enough to answer Dougie and Molly’s question?

Presenter: Caroline Steel

Producer: Tom Bonnett

Editor: Ben Motley

(Photo: Little red sick bird canary inside a wheelbarrow pushed by a lizard. Credit: Fernando Trabanco/Getty Images)